Introduction

Islam rose in the early 7 century in the harsh deserts of Najaf, Arabia. Its spectacular rise in 7 Century has been a subject of intensive studies throughout the world and amongst states, amongst theologians, amongst religions and amongst civilisations. It not just wiped out the ancient Judaism and new born Christianity from the Middle East but overran entire North Africa from Horn of Africa to Atlantic sea coast, it made Spain a colony only to be later forced out by the Franks. Its march to the Caucasus and Tartary was no less significant, it ran roughshod over the Persian Empire of the Sassanids, it overwhelmed the Central Asian Turks and converted the entire region from Morocco to Central Asia into a compact Muslim world in a 100 years. It is no mean feat considering the fact that Islam had to contend with Byzantines in Middle East and the powerful Sassanids in its march northeast and east. While Byzantine held a bit longer than the Sassanids, its fate fared no better, Muslim conquest of Anatolia, Egypt and other Byzantine regions led to Christianity being sidelined and persecuted by the Muslim conquerers though being descended of the same Abrahamic Fathers. Islam’s march eastwards was accomplished without much ado till they overran the Persians in less than 50 years and met the outposts of Hindu Civilisation on the fringes of the Indian Sub Continent in the middle of 7 century. It overcame the stiff resistance from the Rutbils of Zabulistan, the Kabul Shahis, while knocking at the doors of Sind after attacking Makran few decades earlier, Raja Dahir Sen, Brahmin king of Sind faced the invaders bravely but was finally defeated and Islam was officially established in the Indian Sub Continent in early 8 Century.

Early Muslim Conquests

The Kapisa-Gandhara and southern Afghanistan too fell to the Turks, who had recently converted to Islam and fought with the zeal of neo-converts. The Kabul Shahis fell but held on their strongholds in now North West province of Pakistan at Udbhandhpura or Waihand for another 200 years only to lose to Mahmud of Ghazni. The history of Kabul Shahis or Hindu Shahis is another glorious chapter in resistance to Islam on the frontiers of Al-Hind. Here however, we shall primarily deal with the resistance offered by the then ruling class of warriors in mainland India called Rajputs from the first attack on mainland to the end of Mamluk Sultans in 1290 when last of the Slave Sultan was replaced by the Khaljis.

First success of Islamic invaders was recorded in the campaign of Bin Qasim to Sind in 712. It soon capitulated, Arabs established Muslim rule in Sind & Multan with some permanence of sorts. However, it is here that the unstoppable War Machine of Islam was knocked down, a supposedly unbelievable feat, unheard of in last 100 years of rampaging Islam. North India was in throes of a tripartite struggle for supremacy between the Rashtrakutas, the Imperial Pratihars and the Palas after the end of Harsha in early 7 Century. However, the Pratihars stood as the vanguard of Dharma even when facing internal rivals in Rashtrakutas and Palas.

Nagabhata I, founder of the Pratihar dynasty in early 8 Century is credited with defeating the Arab forces under Junayd and his successor Tamim in the second quarter of 8 Century. Al-Baladhuri records Arab attacks on Bhinmal and Ujjain, moving into Valla mandala, Stravani and Marumand, the regions of Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. These forces were defeated near Ujjain by Nagabhata I and the famous Bappa Rawal of the Guhilots. Andre Wink says that Arabs were repelled from Valla Mandala by Rajputs. However, it’s Mihir Bhoja, the Adivaraha who has been described by Arab merchant Sulaiman as most powerful King in India. Idrisi in 11 century based on Al Jayhani’s writings says, “ King of Juzr is a foe to Islam”. By 778 CE, Sind & Multan were under Muslim rule, the raids of Arabs had been repulsed and a rebellion by Arab soldiers who had not faced such doughy resistance led to weakening of Muslim conquest. Arabs were restricted to the west bank of Indus.

Mahmud of Ghazni

This remained the condition for the next 300 years till Mahmud led the disastrous raids into India after the fall of Imperial Pratihars. Kannauj had fallen to Mahmud in 1021 but Kalachuri Kokkala II, a major Rajput ruler blocked his way to Mathura, Kalachuri lost after a hotly contested battle which paved the way for the plunder of Mathura. The Rajput rulers of Kalinjara and Gwalior held off Mahmud in the early 1020s. Mahmud’s moment of glory was his attack on Somnath in Jan 1026, he had come through Multan, Lodrava, Modhera, Patan and Somnath, the resistance offered by the Rajputs is recorded by the Muslim chronicles. Mahmud did not stay long to enjoy his moment of glory as he was being pursued by Parmara Bhoja who had gained eminence as the most powerful King of North India. Mahmud fled through the Kaccha, Sind, Multan to Ghazni. This was the last raid by Mahmud who did not attack Indian mainland again. Mahmud had established his and consequently Muslim rule in Punjab and North West India. For next 160 years no Muslim invader attacked mainland India. Ghaznavids were overthrown by the Ghorids.

Ghorid Invasions

Chahamanas formed the bulwark of resistance in the early new millennium. Ajayraj I who ruled from 1110 to 1135 CE. He repulsed the Ghaznavid invasions during his reign. Prithviraj Vijaya states that he defeated the Garjana-Matangas or Ghazna Muslims. Prabandh Kosha says, he defeated Shahavadina or Sihabuddin. This probably refers to Ghaznavid generals, Minhaz i Siraj states that Bahram Shah had made several expeditions to India and he could be the opponent of Ajayraj I. He was succeeded by Arnoraja who also defeated a Ghaznavid attack from the west. according to Ajmer Prashasti, Arnoraja adorned Ajaymeru with the blood of Turushkas. It is said that the invasion came through west, after defeating the Muslims, he purified the place of their death by commissioning a lake, known as Ana Sagar named after Arnoraja. HC Ray theorises that Arnoraja defeated the Yamini (Ghaznavid) generals. RB Singh identified his foe as Bahram Shah. Tabaqat i Nasiri states that Arnoraja had given refuge to a Ghaznavid rebel and kept him at Nagaur fort. Bahram Shah marched to punish the rebel Mohammad Bahlim who moved to Punjab to meet the attack, Bahlim lost but when Bahram Shah moved against Arnoraja, he was most likely defeated by him.

Vigraharaja IV came to throne of Sapadalaksha in 1150 to 1164 CE. He was perhaps the greatest of the Shakambari Chahamanas. Several sources indicate that Vigraharaja achieved military successes against Muslims. The Delhi-Shivalik pillar inscription at Topra, Haryana boasts that he once again established the supremacy of Aryans in the Aryavrata, the Prabandh Kosha also describes him as “conquerer of Muslims”. Raviprabha’s Dharmagosha Suri Stuti states that ruler of Malwa and Arisha or Ari Singh of Mewar assisted him hoisting the flag at Rajavihara Jain temple at Ajmer. The Muslim invaders defeated by him were probably Bahram Shah and Khusrau Shah. His drama Lalita Vigraharaja Nataka is based on preparation against Hammira (Emir). Turushka ruler.

Prithviraj III does not need any introduction, his defeat at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 has been signalled as the end of Hindu Imperialism in the North and as the age of foundation of Muslim Rule in India. It must however be remembered that Prithviraj was the unchallenged sovereign of the north, his boundaries stretched from the deserts of Maru to Punjab with Delhi and Ajmer as his capitals. Prithviraj III is credited by many for defeating Ghori seventeen times before losing at the second battle of Tarain. Seventeen is an exaggeration but it is presumed by historians that he most likely repulsed Ghorid raids into his territories multiple times rather than the Muslim armies of Ghori. Prithviraj has been criticised by later day realists that he missed the zeal to fight a zealot like Ghori and believed in the Dharma Yudh of Hindu Civilisation which was not compatible with the religious driven political wars of Islam. But Chahamanas did not simply vanish away they had their moments of glory in standing for Dharma in the centuries after Prithviraj III.

Mamluk Sultanate

The names of Hammira of Ranthambhore and Kanhada Dev of Jalore belong to an era yet to come, but Chahamana of Jalore produced yet another hero in Uday Simha or Udai Singh in the 13 Century. He according to Dr Dashrath Sharma ruled for an unprecedented 52 years from 1204 to 1257 CE. Sindh Hill inscription states that Udaysimha ruled over an extensive territory, Jabalipura (Jalore), Mandavyapura (Mandore-Jodhpur), Vaghbhatmeru (Barmer), Surachand, Radhadhra, Srimal or Bhinmal, Ratanpura, Satyapura ( Sanchore)… the extent of his territorial limits are ample evidence of the prowess of arms. His inscriptions speak of crushing the pride of Turushkas, four stone inscriptions found in Bhinmal speak of his not being conquered by the Gurjara King. Some of the places included in his territory were formerly with the Muslim Sultanate of Delhi. Tarikh i Ferishta mentions him as ‘Oodey Sa’, the tributary Raja of Jalawur refused to pay the usual payments, the Sultan was forced to march against him, it was Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Hasan Nizami in Taj ul Masir states that Jalore was captured between 1211-1216. Udaysimha, after the death of Ghori in 1210, was determined to avenge the defeat. Nizami states that the “accursed took the four walls of Jalewar, an exceedingly strong fort, the gates of which have never been opened by a conqueror”. Notwithstanding the exaggerated account by Nizami, it is understood that the Sultan had failed in his attempt to subdue Uday Simha. In 1221 when Iltutmish took on a renewed campaign against the Rajputs in Rajputana, a Confedracy of Rajput rulers was formed, Vir Dhaval Vaghela of Dholka, Uday Simha, Som Simha and Dharavansha of Marwar led the resistance, Sultan retreated without offering a fight. There is another attack by Iltutmish in 1227 which Minhaz says was successful but Hindu accounts differ and a couplet was composed in the memory of Uday Simha defeating the Muslim army. It says, “the water which Asuras (Muslims) drank from the Sundara lake with their mouths was taken out by Udaya from the eyes of their grief stricken wives”. It has been retold with minor changes in Puratanprabandh Sangrah !

Dr Dashrath Sharma speaks about him, “Northern India had not then any ruler mightier than Uday Simha”. Interestingly, defeat of Chahamanas at Tarain in 1192 did not discourage them to reassert themselves. Hariraja, brother to Prithviraj III, collected a Rajput force and besieged Ranthambhore which had passed onto Muslim hands earlier. The consequent Muslim action did not amount to much. Meanwhile, the Dors, a Rajput clan around Kol (Koil, Aligarh) had been menacing the new conquests of Aibak, he personally took the field, crossed Jamuna and captured Kol in 1194. This was precursor to challenging the Gahadvals, the paramount sovereigns of Doab. Muizzuddin marched with fifty thousand horse to Banaras, an expeditionary force of Jayachandra was defeated by the Muslim army. Battle of Chandawar in 1194 decided the fate of North India, Habibullah states, “it was hotly contested battle and Jaichand almost carried the day when he was killed, his army was routed thereafter”. It however did not end the Gahadvala rule, a 1199 grant from Machlishahar of Harichandra, son of Jaichand, who appears to be an independent sovereign. Even Kannauj did not fall to Muslims before 1198 CE, in fact, Iltutmish is on record subduing Kannauj much later. Hariraja was on move again and sent an army under Jhatrai to recover Delhi, the force was intercepted by Aibak. Jhatrai and Hariraja took to Ajmer where after a prolonged siege, they committed suicide. Aibak was himself besieged in the Ajmer fort by a Rajput force, however reinforcements from Ghazni arrived to save the day.

Aibak turned his attention towards Anhilwada where his master Muizzuddhi Ghori had suffered an inglorious defeat in 1178 under leadership of Queen Naiki Devi and survived by a whisker. Aibak marched towards Gujarat, at foot of Mt Abu, he faced the combined Rajput armies of the Chaulukyas and Parmaras of Abu. Muslims were hesitant to attack the formidable enemy, the Chaulukya forces mistaking the hesitancy as fear came out in the open, better tactics and mobility won the battle for Aibak. The victory was hollow the Chaulukyas ruled till 1240 as independent sovereigns. Aibak’s acquisitions in Rajputana were deemed ephemeral as Rajputs took back everything in less than a decade. The Chandellas remained a foe to reckon with in the North, their ruler Parmardideva defied the Islamic invaders till the water source of his fort of Kalinjara was destroyed by the Muslim army.

Death of Aibak and resulting disquiet led to re-emergence of Rajputs in Rajputana, Malwa, Gwalior, Kalinjara. The Parihars continued ruling till 1233, coins and inscriptions of Prince Malayavarmadeva are found in Jhansi, Gwalior and Narwar. Chauhans had established themselves at Ranthambhore, an inscription at Manglana, Nagaur speaks of Jaitrasimha, a local chieftain acknowledges Vallandeva of Ranthambhore as his overlord in 1215 CE. Reign of Iltutmish was a period of constant battle for supremacy, he met with limited success. Rajputs had made themselves independent in Gujarat, Rajputana, Malwa, Gwalior, Narwar, Kalinjara. The nominal Muslim rule was limited to Delhi, in addition to the earlier conquest of Punjab and parts of Ganga-Jamuna Doab. The Baghels of Baghelkhand were challenging the central authority, Tayasi was defeated by the Baghels and his campaign to Kalinjara failed as local chronicles speak of. The Gahadvalas had established themselves at Badayun, while Lakhanpal recovered his patrimony. The Katehriya Rajputs had retained their stronghold of Ahicchatra (Alona) in Rohilkhand. As late as 1240, two grants found at Rewa speak of Trailokyavarma as the overlord of Maharanaka of Kakkaredi, thus negating the Muslim rule around Kalinjara. In fact, a 1280 copper plate of Viravarma, son of Trailokyavarma speaks of grant of villages, his son Harivarma in 1289 calls themselves as ‘Lords of Kalinjara’.

Ranthambhore Chauhans had established themselves as a power to be recognised after the death of Iltutmish, Razia was forced to vacate the fortress. It is recorded by Minhaz that Mewat formed the part of Ranthambhore Chauhan territory. They probably exercised influence over the Hadas of Bundi. Along with the rising power of Chahamanas, another house of Rajputs claiming paramountcy was the Guhilots of Mewar with Chittorgarh as their capital. Balban is credited with attacking Ranthambhore but it seems he was not successful as Muslim chronicles are relatively quiet about it in 1258 CE. The Jadon Bhatis had made themselves masters of areas around Mewat, they isolated the Muslim stronghold of Bayana and commenced a guerrilla war against Muslims. In 1256, a Rajput force carried the offensive to Delhi when Mahmud was engaged with Qutlugh Khan rebellion and Mongol advance into India, they attacked Hansi, Harianah, Siwalik and Bayana. Barani validates the offensive to Delhi and the rising power of Ranthambhore under Jaitrasimha and his more famous, the valorous Hammira. Jaitrasimha and Hammira subdued the kings of Chittor, Abu, Malwa, Ajmer and even Sambhar.

The period from 712 CE to the invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1008 into Punjab and 1014 expedition to Thanesar was relatively free of Muslim armies trooping into India. Even after the establishment of Mamluk Sultanate at Delhi, Muslim rule was tenuous at best, the fear of retaliation by Rajputs was eternal. The resistance offered by the Rajputs from Hindu Shahis of Udbhandpur to Pratihars in Maru-Gurjara to Chaulukyas in Gurjardesha, the Parmaras of Ujjain, Dhar, the opposition of Chahamanas of Shakambari, Jalore, Naddula, the Chandellas of Kalinjara, the mighty Gahadvalas of Kannauj, Banaras, Badayun, the Dors of Kol, the Baghels, Katehriyas, Jadons, rising powers in Ranthambhore, Chittorgarh by their united and individual efforts acted as the bulwark against Islam, they kept the citadel of Hindus and Hinduism alive. Iltutmish, Razia, Balban extended their control upto Bengal and Sind but lands of Rajputs stretching from the foothills of Siwaliks to Vindhyas, from deserts of Rajasthan to eastern UP remained in perpetual tumult, the brave and valorous Rajputs shed lives more readily than shedding their clothes. They retained their fierce spirit of independence and their duty to Dharma in face of overwhelming odds. History of India from 712 to 1650 is nothing but resistance to Islam and Muslim rule by the Rajputs, long before anyone in North India thought of defiance against Islam and Muslims.

DISCLAIMER: The author is solely responsible for the views expressed in this article. The author carries the responsibility for citing and/or licensing of images utilized within the text.